Table of contents

ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that manifests in various forms. As the name implies, it is characterised by inattention, hyperactivity, and increased impulsivity. The condition significantly impacts many aspects of life and can lead to consequences such as school and/or professional underachievement, unemployment, marital difficulties, and in some cases, criminal behaviour. It is also strongly associated with several psychiatric disorders, such as mood disorders, oppositional behaviour, antisocial personality disorder, self-harm, and substance abuse, placing a considerable burden on families and society. [1]

How common is ADHD?

ADHD is the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder, affecting approximately 5–7% of children and adolescents. Its prevalence among school-age children has increased by nearly 22% over the past five years. [2] Boys and children assigned male at birth (AMAB) are diagnosed more than twice as often as girls and those assigned female at birth (AFAB). However, this does not necessarily mean that more boys or AMAB children have ADHD; rather, they are more likely to display hyperactivity-related symptoms, which are more easily recognised during diagnosis. [3]

What is ADHD?

The core characteristics of ADHD are persistent and impairing symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity. These symptoms usually appear before age 12 and persist in 40–60% of cases into adulthood. The course of ADHD varies individually, but generally, it significantly affects various areas of life, including physical health, school, social, and occupational performance. It is also frequently comorbid with other psychiatric and neurological conditions such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), mood disorders, epilepsy, and sleep disorders. [3]

What are the symptoms of ADHD?

Symptoms are grouped into three primary areas: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. These challenges often affect executive functions, leading to difficulties with behavioural regulation, working memory, task-switching, planning, and organisation. The severity and combination of symptoms vary between individuals. [3]

Primarily inattentive type

In children with the inattentive type of ADHD, symptoms include difficulty concentrating, organising, and completing tasks. These behaviours are not occasional—unlike typical child behaviour—but are persistently disruptive in everyday life at home and school. Common signs include lack of attention to detail and frequent careless mistakes. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a child should exhibit at least six of the following:

  1. Difficulty maintaining focus on tasks and activities.
  2. Problems with listening, daydreaming, or confusion.
  3. Trouble following instructions or finishing assignments.
  4. Difficulty organising tasks and activities.
  5. Avoidance or dislike of tasks requiring sustained mental effort.
  6. Frequent loss of items.
  7. Easily distracted by external stimuli.
  8. Forgetfulness in daily avtivities.

Primarily hyperactive/impulsive type

This type also requires at least six out of nine symptoms to be present in a child. These symptoms must interfere with daily functioning:

  1. Frequent fidgeting or tapping of hands or feet; frequent movement.
  2. Leaving one’s seat in situations where remaining seated is expected.
  3. Running or climbing at inappropriate times.
  4. Difficulty to engage in quiet play activities.
  5. Being constantly “on the go” or acting as if “driven by a motor”.
  6. Talking excessively.
  7. Answering questions before they are fully asked.
  8. Difficulty waiting for one’s turn.
  9. Interrupting others during conversation or play. [4]

What are the symptoms of ADHD in adulthood?

The symptoms of ADHD in adulthood mirror those in childhood but may present differently due to the demands of adult life. Adults often experience challenges in the workplace rather than in school settings. ADHD is categorised into three subtypes—inattentive, hyperactive/impulsive, or combined—and its severity is classified as:

  • Mild: means that the criteria for diagnosis are met but the symptoms do not significantly exceed the minimum criteria.
  • Moderate: Symptoms noticeably interfere with work or social life.
  • Severe: Symptoms significantly disrupt daily functioning, making it difficult to maintain employment or relationships. [5]

ADHD is not typically “outgrown.” Rather, symptom management becomes more central with age. The extent to which ADHD affects daily life varies and depends on how well one adapts and copes. An adult with ADHD may not exhibit the same symptoms they had as a child. This variance is influenced by an individual’s “social support system,” i.e., the life circumstances and relationships that shape symptom expression and coping strategies. [6]

Common adult ADHD symptoms, of which at least five must be present, include:

  • Lack of attention to detail.
  • Initiating new tasks before completing previous ones.
  • Poor organisational skills.
  • Difficulty focusing or prioritising.
  • Frequently losing or misplacing items.
  • Forgetfulness.
  • Restlessness or tension.
  • Difficulty maintaining silence or timing in conversation.
  • Interrupting others or making abrupt comments.
  • Emotional swings, impatience, irritability.
  • Low stress tolerance.
  • Extreme impatience and a tendency to take risks, often without concern for personal or others’ safety — for example, reckless driving.

Adult ADHD often co-occurs with other conditions, including personality disorders, bipolar disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

Are there benefits to ADHD?

The brains of individuals with ADHD develop differently, and these differences can often bring certain advantages. People with ADHD may have exceptional abilities in specific areas, which can prove beneficial in daily life. Their creativity is particularly notable, as their unique cognitive style allows them to develop innovative and unconventional solutions. When they can effectively channel their hyperactivity, it often becomes a powerful drive that helps them achieve their goals. Another notable trait is their ability to hyperfocus—an intense concentration on tasks that interest them. During such periods, they can tune out distractions and dedicate their full attention to a task, often leading to high productivity. In addition, people with ADHD are often empathetic, supportive, and highly attuned to the needs of others. They can be excellent team players and are motivated to help those around them. Increasingly, companies and organisations are recognising the advantages of neurodivergent individuals, including those with ADHD. Many employers specifically seek out individuals with ADHD for roles that benefit from their unique cognitive strengths. [5]

Figure 1. The brain of individuals with ADHD develops differently, and these differences are often associated with positive traits as well.

Diagnosis

To diagnose ADHD in children, symptoms must be present in at least two different environments (e.g., school and home) for a minimum of six months and must significantly interfere with everyday functioning. A qualified healthcare professional makes the diagnosis and determines the subtype of ADHD based on characteristic symptoms. The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Revision (DSM-5-TR™) provides guidelines for diagnosis. According to the manual, a child must exhibit at least six symptoms of inattention or six symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity to be diagnosed with ADHD. Individuals with the combined type of ADHD exhibit both inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive behaviours. They must meet the criteria in both categories—at least six symptoms of inattention and six of hyperactivity/impulsivity—for a total of twelve symptoms. [4]

What are the comorbidities of ADHD?

Gastrointestinal disorders and inflammation

The Gastrointestinal Severity Index is used to assess the severity of gastrointestinal symptoms on a 3-point scale, ranging from 0 (“none/normal”) to 2 (“severe/significant”). It evaluates six types of symptoms: constipation, diarrhoea, stool consistency, stool odour, bloating, and abdominal pain. On average, children with ADHD score higher overall—especially in constipation and bloating—compared to their healthy peers. However, these symptoms are not severe in most cases. A unique gut bacterial composition has also been identified, showing links to ADHD-specific behavioural patterns. It is hypothesised that immune dysregulation associated with ADHD is related to differences in microbiome composition, low-grade inflammation, and gastrointestinal abnormalities. Additionally, the higher prevalence of immunological conditions such as asthma and atopic dermatitis in children with ADHD supports the theory of immune dysregulation. [7]

Thyroid disorders

Children with ADHD are at increased risk for thyroid problems, particularly hypothyroidism. Many of them exhibit generalised thyroid hormone resistance, a condition associated with mutations in the thyroid receptor beta gene. This leads to reduced sensitivity of both peripheral tissues and the pituitary gland to thyroid hormones. [8] Abnormal thyroid function is more common in adults with ADHD than in those without the disorder. The precise causes behind the association remain unclear. Shared genetic factors or the effects of ADHD medication on the thyroid may contribute. For example, stimulant medications might influence thyroid hormone levels, potentially raising the risk of thyroid issues. [9]

Other psychological disorders

Around two-thirds of children diagnosed with ADHD are likely to have at least one additional mental health issue or learning disability at some point in their lives, creating further challenges.

Learning disabilities are caused by specific cognitive processing disorders and result in difficulties acquiring new information or skills. Despite having average intelligence, individuals may struggle in specific areas. Over a quarter of children with ADHD have a learning disability such as dyslexia, which affects reading and spelling.

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is also common, affecting up to half of all children with ADHD. It is characterised by frequent defiant or argumentative behaviour toward authority figures, causing problems at home and at school.

Conduct disorder, another behavioural condition, involves persistent patterns of violating others’ rights or breaking societal norms. These behaviours, which occur at home, in school, or in social settings, can seriously disrupt academic performance, relationships, and family life.

Anxiety is more prevalent among individuals with ADHD (see Figure 1), affecting an estimated 50% of adults. Alongside the symptoms, it must also cause significant disruption to daily functioning. Anxiety can reduce quality of life and make it difficult to maintain employment or relationships. These symptoms can be particularly hard to identify in children.

Mood disorders—including depression, bipolar disorder, and seasonal affective disorder—are also more frequent in people with ADHD. Approximately one-quarter of children and nearly half of adults with ADHD experience a co-occurring mood disorder, which requires early identification and appropriate treatment.

Tic disorders are observed in about one in ten children with ADHD. These involve involuntary, repetitive movements or sounds, such as eye-rolling, head-twitching, or throat-clearing. The most severe form is Tourette’s syndrome, which includes both motor and vocal tics and can be persistent.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is also commonly associated with ADHD. Autism is marked by differences in social communication, repetitive behaviours, and sensory processing. About one-third of children with ADHD also meet diagnostic criteria for autism. However, an ADHD diagnosis can delay the identification of autism by several years. Therefore, careful evaluation for autism is essential in children diagnosed with ADHD. [10]

What is the background to the development of ADHD?

The development and symptoms of ADHD are influenced by a combination of biological and environmental factors. Genetic causes account for approximately 70–80% of cases, while the remaining 20–30% are linked to environmental influences. Perinatal conditions—factors affecting the foetus and newborn during late pregnancy, childbirth, and shortly after birth—are particularly significant. These include premature birth, low birth weight, oxygen deprivation, and maternal smoking, alcohol consumption, or drug use. Psychosocial factors such as adoption or child neglect may also contribute to the emergence of ADHD symptoms.

Biological factors also play a substantial role. Poor nutritional intake, especially deficiencies in essential fatty acids and micronutrients, can negatively impact the nervous system. Inflammatory processes and infections can disrupt brain-gut communication, while toxins and environmental pollutants may lead to neurochemical imbalances. Gut microbiome dysbiosis—an imbalance in the intestinal microbial population—has a significant influence on brain-gut interactions, with the Vagus nerve playing a central role. Nervous system cellular abnormalities, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neurotransmitter imbalances may further worsen symptoms.

Figure 2. Factors contributing to the development of ADHD

Modern lifestyles have a significant impact on human health, particularly on the balance of the gut microbiome, which influences the incidence of many diseases. Autoimmune diseases, cardiovascular problems, metabolic diseases (e.g. diabetes), mental and neurological disorders such as depression, anxiety, ASD and ADHD are becoming more common. A clear link between these diseases and the disruption of the beneficial balance of the gut microbiome is now being established. [3]

People with ADHD tend to have different and generally less healthy dietary habits compared to those without the disorder. Children with ADHD often consume more refined grains and less dairy. [11]

Western diets—high in refined sugars and fats—have been linked to ADHD, neuroinflammation (inflammation of nervous tissue), and impaired functioning of the hippocampus. These diets negatively affect the gut microbiome, whose dysbiosis is common in allergic and neurodevelopmental disorders. In contrast, a healthy diet rich in fruits, vegetables, fish, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), magnesium, and zinc can reduce the risk of ADHD by up to 37%. Such diets support cognitive development, emotional well-being, and behavioural regulation. On the other hand, fast food and highly processed foods high in refined grains and hydrogenated fats may increase the risk of ADHD by up to 92%. Another concern is the intake of artificial food colours (AFCs), which may negatively affect brain function.

Diet has a direct influence on both the onset and course of ADHD. Vitamin D, in particular, is strongly associated with the condition. Low vitamin D levels during the perinatal period significantly raise the risk of developing ADHD. Vitamin A deficiency is also more common among children with ADHD than in their peers. When both vitamins are deficient, symptom severity tends to increase. Regular monitoring and supplementation of vitamins A and D are therefore crucial. [12]

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are vital for neurotransmitter function in the nervous system. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons. In children and adolescents with ADHD, the levels of these key neurotransmitters are often lower. [13] These findings underscore the importance of proper nutrition and suggest that a nutrient-rich, balanced diet is essential for supporting intellectual development and mental health in children. [13]

Overall, individuals with allergies have a 30–50% higher risk of developing ADHD, making maternal asthma a notable risk factor. Potential causes include epigenetic influences, shared environmental exposures, and changes in immune susceptibility. Interestingly, the effect of maternal allergy on offspring shows a sex-specific pattern. Female infants of asthmatic mothers who did not use steroid inhalers were found to have significantly lower birth weights, a pattern not observed in male infants. This sex-specific effect has also been associated with an increased risk of ADHD, particularly in girls, where maternal immune sensitivity more often leads to the development of ADHD-related behaviours. [11] Vitamin A plays a key role in immune regulation, the maintenance of mucosal health, and the control of allergic reactions. A deficiency not only raises the risk of allergies and inflammation but may also indirectly contribute to the worsening of ADHD symptoms. [14]

Risk factors for ADHD—such as maternal infections, smoking, fetal alcohol syndrome, and maternal obesity—are all associated with increased maternal inflammatory profiles. This suggests that inflammatory processes during neurodevelopment may play a role in the pathophysiology of ADHD.

As previously mentioned, genetic factors contribute to ADHD in 70–80% of cases. Research indicates that polymorphisms in cytokine-related genes—such as IL6 and TNF-α—and the presence of proinflammatory cytokines may impact synaptic plasticity (the brain’s ability to form and adapt neural connections) and neurogenesis (the generation of new neurons). These changes can affect cognitive functions like working memory and reaction time. There is strong evidence linking ADHD to inflammation-related gene activity. Cytokines, which are messenger molecules of the immune system, regulate both immune responses and inflammation. They also influence tryptophan metabolism—important for producing serotonin and other key neurochemicals essential for nervous system function. Cytokines further affect the dopaminergic system, which is crucial for regulating motivation, reward, and impulse control. These links highlight the potential influence of inflammation on the development and severity of ADHD symptoms.

It is hypothesised that an imbalance between proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines could influence ADHD pathogenesis. Known risk factors such as premature birth and perinatal infections may trigger neuroinflammation. When activated, microglial cells—the brain’s primary immune cells—release proinflammatory cytokines and glutamate, which can intensify inflammation. Interactions between peripheral immune cells and microglia may further amplify inflammatory responses in both the brain and the body, contributing to ADHD.

Current evidence of (neuro)inflammatory processes associated with ADHD is scarce compared to other neuropsychiatric disorders, but certainly noteworthy. It is well established, however, that prenatal exposure to maternal immune activation is associated with neurodevelopmental disorders mediated by inflammatory cell signalling pathways and epigenetic mechanisms. [15]

In summary, it is becoming increasingly recognised that inflammation may be a shared pathophysiological mechanism in major psychiatric conditions. Evidence linking ADHD to inflammatory processes is growing. [16]

Maternal infections during pregnancy (prenatal) have been linked to an increased risk of ADHD. The likelihood of the child developing ADHD is higher if the infection is accompanied by fever, especially in the case of urinary or respiratory tract infections during the second and third trimesters. Interestingly, even maternal diarrhoea without fever in the third trimester has been associated with a higher risk of ADHD development. [17]

The emergence of ADHD symptoms—especially hyperactivity and impulsivity—may be associated with exposure to various harmful chemicals. Childhood exposure to lead is particularly concerning, as it can cause cognitive impairments, impulsive behaviour, and attention difficulties. Mercury, particularly in its methylmercury form, negatively affects neurodevelopment and may contribute to disorders such as ADHD. Organophosphate-based pesticides, known to impair optimal brain development, have also been linked to ADHD. Furthermore, Bisphenol A (BPA), an endocrine-disrupting chemical, may interfere with brain development, especially dopaminergic pathways. [18]

Traditionally, the neuroanatomical basis of ADHD has been associated with the functioning of the prefrontal cortex. More recently, attention has turned to several large-scale neural networks also implicated in the disorder. One of the most significant is the dopaminergic mesolimbic system, which plays a central role in motivated behaviour, outcome expectations, and reinforcement learning. Dysfunction in the noradrenaline neurotransmission system has also been identified as a major pathophysiological factor in ADHD. [3]

Brain imaging studies have shown that children with ADHD typically have about 4% less grey matter volume in both the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum compared to neurotypical children. However, the developmental pattern of the ADHD brain largely mirrors that of the non-ADHD brain, suggesting that the main differences are structural rather than developmental. [19]

In the ADHD brain, dysfunction is observed in four key functional areas that play a central role in the development of symptoms. One of these is the frontal cortex, responsible for higher-order brain functions such as attention, executive functioning, and organisational skills. Abnormal activity in this area directly contributes to the hallmark symptoms of ADHD. Another affected region is the limbic system, located deep within the brain, which regulates emotions and attention. Dysfunction here can lead to emotional instability and attentional difficulties. The basal ganglia are also impacted. These structures are crucial for communication and information processing within the brain. Dysfunction can cause a kind of “short-circuiting,” leading to inattention, impulsivity, and other behavioural challenges. Lastly, the reticular activating system (RAS), which is responsible for relaying sensory input and regulating arousal, may also function abnormally in ADHD. When impaired, the RAS can contribute to inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity by failing to properly regulate alertness and focus. Together, abnormalities in these areas explain much of the neurobiological basis for ADHD symptoms.

Neurotransmitter dysfunction

Noradrenaline plays a vital role in the functioning of the prefrontal cortex. Reduced levels in individuals with ADHD can impair their ability to hold information needed for planning and executing tasks, and may also weaken inhibitory control—the ability to suppress distractions or inappropriate behaviours. Dopamine is equally important, as it regulates emotion, motivation, and reward. In ADHD, dopamine levels may be lower, which can reduce motivation—especially for long-term goals or rewards that are not immediate. As a result, individuals with ADHD often prefer smaller, short-term rewards over larger, long-term ones. [20]

Neuroinflammation

Neuroinflammation refers to inflammation of nervous system tissues and is characterised by changes in microglial and astrocyte activity, increased cytokines and chemokines, and other molecular shifts in the central nervous system (CNS). Although the term is often reserved for inflammation caused by infections like bacteria or viruses, in this context, terms like microglial activation or neuronal immune activation are more accurate. In ADHD, both peripheral and central neuroinflammation can be observed. It is hypothesised that neuroinflammation disrupts brain development and raises the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders through multiple mechanisms. These include activation of glial cells, increased oxidative stress, abnormal neuronal development, reduced neurotrophic support, and impaired neurotransmitter function. Reduced neurotrophic support means the brain has fewer growth-promoting substances, known as neurotrophic factors, which are crucial for neuron survival, growth, and adaptability. A lack of these factors can impair neural development and reduce the brain’s ability to adapt and regenerate. [19]

The connection between the vagus nerve and ADHD is becoming increasingly evident. The vagus nerve is a critical communication pathway between the brain and various organs, helping regulate heart rate, breathing, digestion, inflammation, and the entire parasympathetic relaxation system. When this neurological “superhighway” is disrupted—due to early trauma, chronic stress, or nervous system dysfunction—children may display classic ADHD symptoms. Inattention, emotional reactivity, hyperactivity, digestive issues, and sleep disturbances are all linked to reduced vagal function and impaired neurological signalling. Children with ADHD often have low heart rate variability (HRV), an indicator of reduced vagus nerve activity and diminished parasympathetic tone. This maintains a state of heightened sympathetic arousal—or “fight or flight”—which plays a major role in the development of attention difficulties, hyperactivity, impulsivity, and emotion regulation challenges. When vagus nerve dysfunction and neurobehavioural imbalances are addressed through targeted assessments and protocols, many children can overcome the core challenges of ADHD without long-term reliance on medication. [21]

Gut microbes can activate the vagus nerve, playing a key role in influencing both brain function and behaviour. Remarkably, the Vagus nerve seems able to distinguish between non-pathogenic and potentially harmful bacteria—even in the absence of visible inflammation. Through vagal pathways, signals from the gut can either increase or reduce anxiety, depending on the nature of the stimuli. Some vagal signals trigger what’s known as the anti-inflammatory reflex, where sensory (afferent) signals travel from the gut to the brain and prompt a response that leads to the release of substances such as acetylcholine. Acetylcholine, in turn, interacts with immune cells to reduce inflammation. This immunomodulatory role of the Vagus nerve may also influence brain function and emotional regulation. [22]

The previously mentioned aetiological factors and catecholaminergic dysfunction may lead to a neurological condition primarily marked by oxidative stress and inflammation. These processes can further intensify the neurochemical changes underlying ADHD, affecting mood, behaviour, and concentration. Individuals with ADHD show increased markers of oxidative and nitrosative (NO) stress and reduced levels of antioxidants. Abnormalities in both the number and function of mitochondria—particularly in dopaminergic neurons—have also been observed. Mitochondrial dysfunction leads to the uncontrolled production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RONS), which are natural by-products of cellular energy (ATP) production. Excessive ROS/RONS levels can damage neurons by oxidising polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in cell membranes and by disrupting normal cellular processes, including programmed cell death. Furthermore, ROS/RONS activate microglial cells, prompting the release of inflammatory cytokines and triggering a self-perpetuating inflammatory cycle. [3] It is now well established that oxidative stress is elevated in individuals with ADHD and that some symptoms may improve with antioxidant treatment. [23]

The role of the gut microbiome

Gut-brain axis

Proper brain development and function are closely linked to the gut microbiome, leading to the concept of the Microbiome–Brain–Gut Axis. This theory describes the bidirectional communication between the gut and the brain. Disruptions in the gut microbiome are increasingly associated with the development of psychiatric, neurological, and neurodegenerative disorders. [13]

The gut microbiome influences brain development and the maturation of the immune and neuroendocrine systems, particularly during a critical early-life window. These effects cannot be reversed later in life. The microbiome begins to influence development even before birth, as the mother’s microbiome affects embryonic development. The relationship between the gut microbiome and the human body is reciprocal—factors such as diet, health status, and lifestyle also shape the microbial community in the digestive tract.

Modernisation, including changes in dietary habits and food processing, has significantly altered gut microbiome. Other factors—such as the rise in caesarean births, advances in medical treatments, and the increased use of medications for chronic conditions—also affect the natural composition of the gut microbiome. [3]

In individuals with ADHD, the gut microbiome differs from that of neurotypical individuals, although no definitive microbial profile has been identified. Research has shown that micronutrient supplementation may reduce levels of Bifidobacterium, which correlates with reduced ADHD symptoms. These bacteria are thought to influence the COMT enzyme, which plays a role in dopamine metabolism, thereby helping regulate dopamine and noradrenaline levels. In adolescents with ADHD, increased levels of Bacteroidaceae and Clostridiales and reduced levels of Faecalibacterium have been observed. 

These changes suggest that gut microbiome imbalances in ADHD involve multiple bacterial groups that may impact nervous system function and symptom expression. The microbiome may influence catecholaminergic neurotransmission by affecting the metabolic pathways or gene expression related to neurotransmitters such as dopamine and noradrenaline. Additionally, gut bacteria may contribute to neuroinflammation and oxidative stress by affecting microglial activation, blood-brain barrier permeability, and the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs).

SCFAs serve as “fuel” for mitochondria, but when mitochondrial function is already impaired and SCFA synthesis is elevated—due to microbial imbalance—this can lead to excessive production of ROS/RONS. Certain bacteria, such as Bacteroides and Clostridiae, are particularly active in SCFA production. SCFAs may also influence neurogenesis by affecting brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels. Abnormal BDNF levels have been observed in individuals with ADHD, potentially impacting neuroplasticity and contributing to issues with cognition, attention, and emotional regulation. Medication-based regulation of BDNF levels may help restore proper brain function. 

Another potential mechanism linking the gut microbiome to ADHD is its interaction with omega-3 fatty acid metabolism. Low omega-3 and high omega-6 levels can promote inflammation, oxidative stress, and neurotransmitter imbalance—all factors in ADHD symptom development. Omega-3 supplementation may be a promising adjunctive therapy by reducing inflammation and supporting brain health. DHA and EPA, the primary omega-3 fatty acids, are essential for maintaining cell membrane fluidity, neurotransmission, and receptor function. They also influence the levels of neurotrophic factors like BDNF and glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), which support the health and function of nerve cells—especially dopamine-producing neurons. Reduced DHA levels during brain development are associated with dopaminergic underfunction in the frontal cortex. [3]

Do you suffer from ADHD?

Examining the composition of the gut microbiome can help uncover the underlying root causes behind the symptoms.

Treatments

Drug therapy

Psychostimulants are among the primary medications used to treat moderate to severe cases of ADHD and may be prescribed to children from the age of five. These medications primarily work by increasing extracellular levels of dopamine (DA) and noradrenaline (NE), although they also influence other neurotransmitters such as serotonin (5-HT) and glutamate (Glu), which are involved in the pathophysiology of ADHD. However, the long-term use of psychostimulants is often complicated by issues related to treatment adherence and tolerability. These challenges may arise due to ADHD-related stigma, social resistance to medication, and side effects—particularly during adolescence. [3] Although short-term use of psychostimulants can significantly reduce core symptoms such as inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity in children and adolescents, their long-term effectiveness remains a topic of debate. Studies show statistically significant improvements in symptoms over several weeks compared to placebo, based on clinical rating scales. Still, it’s important to note that statistically significant changes in symptom scores do not always translate into meaningful improvements in everyday functioning. [24]

Macronutrients

Nutritional deficiencies may contribute to the development and severity of various mental health conditions, including depression, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, and ADHD. As a result, dietary interventions for ADHD are receiving growing scientific interest. [24]

Diet plays a particularly critical role in managing ADHD. However, meal planning and cooking at home—though beneficial for promoting healthy eating—can pose significant challenges for individuals with ADHD. These tasks require skills such as planning, time management, decision-making, and the ability to follow multi-step processes, which can easily lead to frustration. As a result, many prefer ordering takeout or dining out, even though restaurant meals often lack the essential nutrients needed for optimal brain function. One major advantage of cooking at home is knowing exactly what goes into the food. Using fresh, natural ingredients without artificial additives can help reduce symptoms. Maintaining a healthy diet can support both symptom management and the overall effectiveness of ADHD treatment. [25]

Foods that support brain function may be especially helpful. Protein-rich foods—such as cheese, eggs, meat, and nuts—especially when eaten in the morning or afternoon, can enhance concentration and extend the effectiveness of ADHD medication. Complex carbohydrates, which the body breaks down into glucose for energy, also support healthy brain function. Eating fruits and vegetables such as oranges, tangerines, pears, grapefruit, apples, or kiwi in the evening can aid sleep. Omega-3 fatty acids, found in tuna, salmon, cold-water fish, nuts, Brazil nuts, and olive oil, are also beneficial. Supplementation may be considered if dietary intake is insufficient. [26]

Children with ADHD often have significantly lower levels of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and significantly higher omega-6 levels. This has led to growing interest in omega-3 supplementation as an alternative or complement to psychostimulant therapy. Supplementation with DHA and EPA may help reduce overall symptoms, improve attention, and reduce hyperactivity in children and adolescents with ADHD. However, results from omega-3 supplementation studies remain inconsistent. [3]

A maternal diet high in omega-6 fatty acids during pregnancy may increase the risk of (subclinical) ADHD in children.

In conclusion, those with documented omega-3 deficiencies are most likely to benefit from supplementation. In other cases, the therapeutic effect on core ADHD symptoms appears to be limited. [24]

Micronutrients

Micronutrient deficiencies may contribute to dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex and other brain regions involved in the pathophysiology of ADHD. However, research findings on these associations are not yet fully conclusive. Children with ADHD often have lower serum magnesium levels compared to their neurotypical peers. This supports the hypothesis that magnesium deficiency may be linked to ADHD, although a direct causal relationship has not been established. Maintaining adequate magnesium levels may help reduce symptoms—particularly by promoting relaxation and better sleep, which are often challenging for both children and adults with ADHD. Supplementation with magnesium and vitamin D has been associated with significant improvements in behavioural and emotional issues, peer relationships, and overall coping in children. [24]

Children with ADHD also frequently have lower zinc levels. Zinc supplementation may help reduce hyperactivity and impulsivity, although it has not been shown to significantly improve inattention. However, excessive zinc intake can be harmful, so supplementation should only be started after consulting a doctor.

Iron deficiency may also play a role in ADHD symptoms. Even when not accompanied by anaemia, low ferritin levels (a marker of iron storage) may indicate problems with iron metabolism. Children with low ferritin levels have shown symptom improvement after 12 weeks of iron supplementation. [27] However, iron should only be supplemented under medical supervision and based on lab tests, as excessive iron can also be toxic.

Vitamin C plays a key role in regulating dopamine in the brain. Since ADHD stimulant medications work in part by increasing dopamine levels, vitamin C may indirectly support brain function. Ideally, vitamin C should be consumed through a balanced diet, but if dietary intake is insufficient, daily supplementation may be recommended. Importantly, vitamin C should not be taken within one hour before or after ADHD medication, as it can interfere with its absorption. [28]

Probiotics

Prebiotic and probiotic therapy should ideally begin after conducting a microbiome test, which helps determine the individual’s specific gut microbiome composition and allows for more targeted, effective treatment. Both prebiotics and probiotics have shown beneficial effects on psychiatric conditions, including ADHD. Probiotics are live strains of bacteria that benefit the host, while prebiotics are specific nutrients that support the growth of beneficial gut microbes. Synbiotics—combinations of prebiotics and probiotics—can further enhance treatment by improving the survival and colonisation of helpful bacteria in the intestines. Together, these supplements can help restore microbial balance, improving overall health and well-being. Probiotic supplementation with multiple bacterial strains has been shown to reduce symptoms of ADHD and anxiety (but not depression), and to decrease the severity of core ADHD symptoms. Such supplements may include various strains of Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Bacillus, and Streptococcus. The specific probiotic strain Bifidobacterium bifidum (Bf-688) has been associated with significant improvements in inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. [13]

One particularly beneficial strain is Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, which helps strengthen the intestinal barrier, making it less “leaky” or permeable. This is likely due to its ability to tighten the junctions between intestinal cells, increase protective mucus (mucin) production, and support the secretion of immunoglobulin A—an essential component of the immune system. Additionally, Lactobacillus rhamnosus has been linked to the regulation of emotional behaviour and the central GABAergic system via the gut-brain axis, with potential relevance to several neuropsychiatric disorders. [29]

Children and adolescents with ADHD who received Lactobacillus rhamnosus supplementation reported significantly improved health and quality of life, including better physical, social, academic, and emotional functioning after three months of treatment. These findings suggest that the use of Lactobacillus rhamnosus may be a beneficial therapeutic option. [24]

Diet

A higher-quality maternal diet during pregnancy has been associated with a modest reduction in ADHD symptom scores at age eight, as well as a lower risk of an ADHD diagnosis. [24]

Increased sugar consumption among children with ADHD may be more of a consequence than a cause of the disorder. These children tend to consume significantly more simple sugars, processed foods, and sugary drinks, while their intake of protein, vitamins B1 and B2, vitamin C, calcium, and zinc is notably lower than that of their neurotypical peers. Children with ADHD also tend to have a higher body mass index (BMI) and greater waist circumference. Analyses of dietary patterns have revealed that foods such as chocolate, crisps, and fruit jams are positively correlated with symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and overall ADHD diagnosis. Conversely, a vegetable-rich diet appears to be associated with a lower risk of ADHD symptoms.

A healthy dietary pattern—rich in vegetables, fruits, seafood, polyunsaturated fatty acids, magnesium, and zinc—has been linked to a significantly reduced risk of ADHD. In contrast, a Western dietary pattern, characterised by high consumption of sweets, processed meats, refined grains, fried potatoes, chips, soft drinks, animal fats, and hydrogenated fats, has been associated with a higher risk. Similar associations have been observed with fast food diets, which are primarily composed of biscuits, chocolate bars, pastries, pizza, sweets, snacks, and carbonated beverages. [24]

The Mediterranean diet—based on traditional eating patterns from Mediterranean countries—emphasises fresh vegetables, fruits, olive oil, fish, nuts, seeds, moderate dairy and wine intake, and minimal red meat and sugar. This diet has been shown to help prevent cardiovascular disease and improve overall health. A Mediterranean diet has also been linked to a lower risk of ADHD, suggesting that adherence to this eating pattern may have a protective effect in primary school-aged children. [24]

It has been hypothesised that some children with ADHD may experience hypersensitivity or allergic reactions to certain foods. In such cases, an oligoantigenic or low-food diet may be helpful in identifying food triggers. A strict elimination diet temporarily removes most foods from the child’s intake and then gradually reintroduces them one at a time to assess for behavioural or cognitive responses. Children who respond positively to the diet may show improved functioning within a few weeks. The final stage involves creating a personalised diet that excludes only the identified trigger foods. Certain foods may be more likely to contribute to ADHD symptoms, supporting the idea that food-related subtypes of ADHD may exist. [24] Certain foods are more likely to contribute to the appearance of ADHD symptoms, suggesting that food-related subtypes of ADHD may exist. [24]

Treatments of ADHD

Figure 3. Treatment options for ADHD

Contact our experts!

At HealWays, we offer comprehensive support for children with ADHD and behavioural disorders—especially when accompanied by gastrointestinal symptoms. Our goal is to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life through natural approaches that support both brain and digestive health. During a personal consultation, we recommend a tailored diet and nutritional supplement plan based on laboratory results and observed symptoms, to support the child’s development and overall well-being.

In general, our recommended approach includes the following elements:

  1. Gluten- and dairy-free diet: Avoiding gluten and dairy can be beneficial for many children with ADHD, particularly when food sensitivities or intolerances are present.
  2. Sugar avoidance: Eliminating added sugars and refined carbohydrates helps stabilise blood sugar and reduce mood and energy swings that can worsen ADHD symptoms.
  3. Digestive enzymes (Betaine-HCl + pepsin): These support nutrient absorption, especially in children with digestive issues or gut microbiome imbalances.
  4. Long-cooked bone broth, liver, offal
  5. Pomegranate: Rich in natural antioxidants and anti-inflammatory compounds, it may support both brain and digestive health.
  6. Omega-3 fatty acids (1000–2000 mg): EPA and DHA are essential for optimal brain function.
  7. Vitamin C: A potent antioxidant that supports immune function and dopamine synthesis—key in ADHD treatment.
  8. Vitamins A and D: Essential for immune health and brain function. Normalising levels in children with ADHD may lead to significant improvements.
  9. Concentrated red berry fruit purée: Rich in antioxidants and nutrients that support anti-inflammatory processes.
  10. Melatonin: May improve sleep quality, helping children fall asleep more easily and sleep more deeply—vital for managing behavioural challenges.
  11. Avoidance of food additives, preservatives, colourings; chemical-free nutrition

These integrated strategies can be highly effective in improving the quality of life for children with ADHD. In addition to the recommendations listed above, gut microbiome genetic testing is especially important. It allows us to precisely identify the bacterial composition in the gut and design personalised, targeted treatments that address both gastrointestinal and ADHD-related symptoms more effectively. Our comprehensive approach ensures that each child receives the personalised support best suited to their unique needs.

Do you suffer from ADHD?

Examining the composition of the gut microbiome can help uncover the underlying root causes behind the symptoms.

References

[1] P. Song, M. Zha, Q. Yang, Y. Zhang, X. Li, and I. Rudan, ‘The prevalence of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A global systematic review and meta-analysis’, J Glob Health, vol. 11, p. 04009, DOI: https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.11.04009

[2] ‘23.1.1.6. Sajátos nevelési igényű gyermekek, tanulók száma fogyatékosság-típus szerint’ https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/okt/hu/okt0006.html

[3] A. Checa-Ros, A. Jeréz-Calero, A. Molina-Carballo, C. Campoy, and A. Muñoz-Hoyos, ‘Current Evidence on the Role of the Gut Microbiome in ADHD Pathophysiology and Therapeutic Implications’, Nutrients, vol. 13, no. 1, Art. no. 1, Jan. 2021, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010249

[4] ‘Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)’, Cleveland Clinic https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4784-attention-deficithyperactivity-disorder-adhd

[5] ‘ADHD in Adults: Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment’, Cleveland Clinic https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/5197-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd-in-adults

↓ Read More ↓
Published On: July 17th, 2025 / Categories: Uncategorized / Tags: /

Table of contents

ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that manifests in various forms. As the name implies, it is characterised by inattention, hyperactivity, and increased impulsivity. The condition significantly impacts many aspects of life and can lead to consequences such as school and/or professional underachievement, unemployment, marital difficulties, and in some cases, criminal behaviour. It is also strongly associated with several psychiatric disorders, such as mood disorders, oppositional behaviour, antisocial personality disorder, self-harm, and substance abuse, placing a considerable burden on families and society. [1]

How common is ADHD?

ADHD is the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder, affecting approximately 5–7% of children and adolescents. Its prevalence among school-age children has increased by nearly 22% over the past five years. [2] Boys and children assigned male at birth (AMAB) are diagnosed more than twice as often as girls and those assigned female at birth (AFAB). However, this does not necessarily mean that more boys or AMAB children have ADHD; rather, they are more likely to display hyperactivity-related symptoms, which are more easily recognised during diagnosis. [3]

What is ADHD?

The core characteristics of ADHD are persistent and impairing symptoms of inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity. These symptoms usually appear before age 12 and persist in 40–60% of cases into adulthood. The course of ADHD varies individually, but generally, it significantly affects various areas of life, including physical health, school, social, and occupational performance. It is also frequently comorbid with other psychiatric and neurological conditions such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD), mood disorders, epilepsy, and sleep disorders. [3]

What are the symptoms of ADHD?

Symptoms are grouped into three primary areas: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. These challenges often affect executive functions, leading to difficulties with behavioural regulation, working memory, task-switching, planning, and organisation. The severity and combination of symptoms vary between individuals. [3]

Primarily inattentive type

In children with the inattentive type of ADHD, symptoms include difficulty concentrating, organising, and completing tasks. These behaviours are not occasional—unlike typical child behaviour—but are persistently disruptive in everyday life at home and school. Common signs include lack of attention to detail and frequent careless mistakes. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a child should exhibit at least six of the following:

  1. Difficulty maintaining focus on tasks and activities.
  2. Problems with listening, daydreaming, or confusion.
  3. Trouble following instructions or finishing assignments.
  4. Difficulty organising tasks and activities.
  5. Avoidance or dislike of tasks requiring sustained mental effort.
  6. Frequent loss of items.
  7. Easily distracted by external stimuli.
  8. Forgetfulness in daily avtivities.

Primarily hyperactive/impulsive type

This type also requires at least six out of nine symptoms to be present in a child. These symptoms must interfere with daily functioning:

  1. Frequent fidgeting or tapping of hands or feet; frequent movement.
  2. Leaving one’s seat in situations where remaining seated is expected.
  3. Running or climbing at inappropriate times.
  4. Difficulty to engage in quiet play activities.
  5. Being constantly “on the go” or acting as if “driven by a motor”.
  6. Talking excessively.
  7. Answering questions before they are fully asked.
  8. Difficulty waiting for one’s turn.
  9. Interrupting others during conversation or play. [4]

What are the symptoms of ADHD in adulthood?

The symptoms of ADHD in adulthood mirror those in childhood but may present differently due to the demands of adult life. Adults often experience challenges in the workplace rather than in school settings. ADHD is categorised into three subtypes—inattentive, hyperactive/impulsive, or combined—and its severity is classified as:

  • Mild: means that the criteria for diagnosis are met but the symptoms do not significantly exceed the minimum criteria.
  • Moderate: Symptoms noticeably interfere with work or social life.
  • Severe: Symptoms significantly disrupt daily functioning, making it difficult to maintain employment or relationships. [5]

ADHD is not typically “outgrown.” Rather, symptom management becomes more central with age. The extent to which ADHD affects daily life varies and depends on how well one adapts and copes. An adult with ADHD may not exhibit the same symptoms they had as a child. This variance is influenced by an individual’s “social support system,” i.e., the life circumstances and relationships that shape symptom expression and coping strategies. [6]

Common adult ADHD symptoms, of which at least five must be present, include:

  • Lack of attention to detail.
  • Initiating new tasks before completing previous ones.
  • Poor organisational skills.
  • Difficulty focusing or prioritising.
  • Frequently losing or misplacing items.
  • Forgetfulness.
  • Restlessness or tension.
  • Difficulty maintaining silence or timing in conversation.
  • Interrupting others or making abrupt comments.
  • Emotional swings, impatience, irritability.
  • Low stress tolerance.
  • Extreme impatience and a tendency to take risks, often without concern for personal or others’ safety — for example, reckless driving.

Adult ADHD often co-occurs with other conditions, including personality disorders, bipolar disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).

Are there benefits to ADHD?

The brains of individuals with ADHD develop differently, and these differences can often bring certain advantages. People with ADHD may have exceptional abilities in specific areas, which can prove beneficial in daily life. Their creativity is particularly notable, as their unique cognitive style allows them to develop innovative and unconventional solutions. When they can effectively channel their hyperactivity, it often becomes a powerful drive that helps them achieve their goals. Another notable trait is their ability to hyperfocus—an intense concentration on tasks that interest them. During such periods, they can tune out distractions and dedicate their full attention to a task, often leading to high productivity. In addition, people with ADHD are often empathetic, supportive, and highly attuned to the needs of others. They can be excellent team players and are motivated to help those around them. Increasingly, companies and organisations are recognising the advantages of neurodivergent individuals, including those with ADHD. Many employers specifically seek out individuals with ADHD for roles that benefit from their unique cognitive strengths. [5]

Figure 1. The brain of individuals with ADHD develops differently, and these differences are often associated with positive traits as well.

Diagnosis

To diagnose ADHD in children, symptoms must be present in at least two different environments (e.g., school and home) for a minimum of six months and must significantly interfere with everyday functioning. A qualified healthcare professional makes the diagnosis and determines the subtype of ADHD based on characteristic symptoms. The American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Revision (DSM-5-TR™) provides guidelines for diagnosis. According to the manual, a child must exhibit at least six symptoms of inattention or six symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity to be diagnosed with ADHD. Individuals with the combined type of ADHD exhibit both inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive behaviours. They must meet the criteria in both categories—at least six symptoms of inattention and six of hyperactivity/impulsivity—for a total of twelve symptoms. [4]

What are the comorbidities of ADHD?

Gastrointestinal disorders and inflammation

The Gastrointestinal Severity Index is used to assess the severity of gastrointestinal symptoms on a 3-point scale, ranging from 0 (“none/normal”) to 2 (“severe/significant”). It evaluates six types of symptoms: constipation, diarrhoea, stool consistency, stool odour, bloating, and abdominal pain. On average, children with ADHD score higher overall—especially in constipation and bloating—compared to their healthy peers. However, these symptoms are not severe in most cases. A unique gut bacterial composition has also been identified, showing links to ADHD-specific behavioural patterns. It is hypothesised that immune dysregulation associated with ADHD is related to differences in microbiome composition, low-grade inflammation, and gastrointestinal abnormalities. Additionally, the higher prevalence of immunological conditions such as asthma and atopic dermatitis in children with ADHD supports the theory of immune dysregulation. [7]

Thyroid disorders

Children with ADHD are at increased risk for thyroid problems, particularly hypothyroidism. Many of them exhibit generalised thyroid hormone resistance, a condition associated with mutations in the thyroid receptor beta gene. This leads to reduced sensitivity of both peripheral tissues and the pituitary gland to thyroid hormones. [8] Abnormal thyroid function is more common in adults with ADHD than in those without the disorder. The precise causes behind the association remain unclear. Shared genetic factors or the effects of ADHD medication on the thyroid may contribute. For example, stimulant medications might influence thyroid hormone levels, potentially raising the risk of thyroid issues. [9]

Other psychological disorders

Around two-thirds of children diagnosed with ADHD are likely to have at least one additional mental health issue or learning disability at some point in their lives, creating further challenges.

Learning disabilities are caused by specific cognitive processing disorders and result in difficulties acquiring new information or skills. Despite having average intelligence, individuals may struggle in specific areas. Over a quarter of children with ADHD have a learning disability such as dyslexia, which affects reading and spelling.

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is also common, affecting up to half of all children with ADHD. It is characterised by frequent defiant or argumentative behaviour toward authority figures, causing problems at home and at school.

Conduct disorder, another behavioural condition, involves persistent patterns of violating others’ rights or breaking societal norms. These behaviours, which occur at home, in school, or in social settings, can seriously disrupt academic performance, relationships, and family life.

Anxiety is more prevalent among individuals with ADHD (see Figure 1), affecting an estimated 50% of adults. Alongside the symptoms, it must also cause significant disruption to daily functioning. Anxiety can reduce quality of life and make it difficult to maintain employment or relationships. These symptoms can be particularly hard to identify in children.

Mood disorders—including depression, bipolar disorder, and seasonal affective disorder—are also more frequent in people with ADHD. Approximately one-quarter of children and nearly half of adults with ADHD experience a co-occurring mood disorder, which requires early identification and appropriate treatment.

Tic disorders are observed in about one in ten children with ADHD. These involve involuntary, repetitive movements or sounds, such as eye-rolling, head-twitching, or throat-clearing. The most severe form is Tourette’s syndrome, which includes both motor and vocal tics and can be persistent.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is also commonly associated with ADHD. Autism is marked by differences in social communication, repetitive behaviours, and sensory processing. About one-third of children with ADHD also meet diagnostic criteria for autism. However, an ADHD diagnosis can delay the identification of autism by several years. Therefore, careful evaluation for autism is essential in children diagnosed with ADHD. [10]

What is the background to the development of ADHD?

The development and symptoms of ADHD are influenced by a combination of biological and environmental factors. Genetic causes account for approximately 70–80% of cases, while the remaining 20–30% are linked to environmental influences. Perinatal conditions—factors affecting the foetus and newborn during late pregnancy, childbirth, and shortly after birth—are particularly significant. These include premature birth, low birth weight, oxygen deprivation, and maternal smoking, alcohol consumption, or drug use. Psychosocial factors such as adoption or child neglect may also contribute to the emergence of ADHD symptoms.

Biological factors also play a substantial role. Poor nutritional intake, especially deficiencies in essential fatty acids and micronutrients, can negatively impact the nervous system. Inflammatory processes and infections can disrupt brain-gut communication, while toxins and environmental pollutants may lead to neurochemical imbalances. Gut microbiome dysbiosis—an imbalance in the intestinal microbial population—has a significant influence on brain-gut interactions, with the Vagus nerve playing a central role. Nervous system cellular abnormalities, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neurotransmitter imbalances may further worsen symptoms.

Figure 2. Factors contributing to the development of ADHD

Modern lifestyles have a significant impact on human health, particularly on the balance of the gut microbiome, which influences the incidence of many diseases. Autoimmune diseases, cardiovascular problems, metabolic diseases (e.g. diabetes), mental and neurological disorders such as depression, anxiety, ASD and ADHD are becoming more common. A clear link between these diseases and the disruption of the beneficial balance of the gut microbiome is now being established. [3]

People with ADHD tend to have different and generally less healthy dietary habits compared to those without the disorder. Children with ADHD often consume more refined grains and less dairy. [11]

Western diets—high in refined sugars and fats—have been linked to ADHD, neuroinflammation (inflammation of nervous tissue), and impaired functioning of the hippocampus. These diets negatively affect the gut microbiome, whose dysbiosis is common in allergic and neurodevelopmental disorders. In contrast, a healthy diet rich in fruits, vegetables, fish, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), magnesium, and zinc can reduce the risk of ADHD by up to 37%. Such diets support cognitive development, emotional well-being, and behavioural regulation. On the other hand, fast food and highly processed foods high in refined grains and hydrogenated fats may increase the risk of ADHD by up to 92%. Another concern is the intake of artificial food colours (AFCs), which may negatively affect brain function.

Diet has a direct influence on both the onset and course of ADHD. Vitamin D, in particular, is strongly associated with the condition. Low vitamin D levels during the perinatal period significantly raise the risk of developing ADHD. Vitamin A deficiency is also more common among children with ADHD than in their peers. When both vitamins are deficient, symptom severity tends to increase. Regular monitoring and supplementation of vitamins A and D are therefore crucial. [12]

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are vital for neurotransmitter function in the nervous system. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons. In children and adolescents with ADHD, the levels of these key neurotransmitters are often lower. [13] These findings underscore the importance of proper nutrition and suggest that a nutrient-rich, balanced diet is essential for supporting intellectual development and mental health in children. [13]

Overall, individuals with allergies have a 30–50% higher risk of developing ADHD, making maternal asthma a notable risk factor. Potential causes include epigenetic influences, shared environmental exposures, and changes in immune susceptibility. Interestingly, the effect of maternal allergy on offspring shows a sex-specific pattern. Female infants of asthmatic mothers who did not use steroid inhalers were found to have significantly lower birth weights, a pattern not observed in male infants. This sex-specific effect has also been associated with an increased risk of ADHD, particularly in girls, where maternal immune sensitivity more often leads to the development of ADHD-related behaviours. [11] Vitamin A plays a key role in immune regulation, the maintenance of mucosal health, and the control of allergic reactions. A deficiency not only raises the risk of allergies and inflammation but may also indirectly contribute to the worsening of ADHD symptoms. [14]

Risk factors for ADHD—such as maternal infections, smoking, fetal alcohol syndrome, and maternal obesity—are all associated with increased maternal inflammatory profiles. This suggests that inflammatory processes during neurodevelopment may play a role in the pathophysiology of ADHD.

As previously mentioned, genetic factors contribute to ADHD in 70–80% of cases. Research indicates that polymorphisms in cytokine-related genes—such as IL6 and TNF-α—and the presence of proinflammatory cytokines may impact synaptic plasticity (the brain’s ability to form and adapt neural connections) and neurogenesis (the generation of new neurons). These changes can affect cognitive functions like working memory and reaction time. There is strong evidence linking ADHD to inflammation-related gene activity. Cytokines, which are messenger molecules of the immune system, regulate both immune responses and inflammation. They also influence tryptophan metabolism—important for producing serotonin and other key neurochemicals essential for nervous system function. Cytokines further affect the dopaminergic system, which is crucial for regulating motivation, reward, and impulse control. These links highlight the potential influence of inflammation on the development and severity of ADHD symptoms.

It is hypothesised that an imbalance between proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines could influence ADHD pathogenesis. Known risk factors such as premature birth and perinatal infections may trigger neuroinflammation. When activated, microglial cells—the brain’s primary immune cells—release proinflammatory cytokines and glutamate, which can intensify inflammation. Interactions between peripheral immune cells and microglia may further amplify inflammatory responses in both the brain and the body, contributing to ADHD.

Current evidence of (neuro)inflammatory processes associated with ADHD is scarce compared to other neuropsychiatric disorders, but certainly noteworthy. It is well established, however, that prenatal exposure to maternal immune activation is associated with neurodevelopmental disorders mediated by inflammatory cell signalling pathways and epigenetic mechanisms. [15]

In summary, it is becoming increasingly recognised that inflammation may be a shared pathophysiological mechanism in major psychiatric conditions. Evidence linking ADHD to inflammatory processes is growing. [16]

Maternal infections during pregnancy (prenatal) have been linked to an increased risk of ADHD. The likelihood of the child developing ADHD is higher if the infection is accompanied by fever, especially in the case of urinary or respiratory tract infections during the second and third trimesters. Interestingly, even maternal diarrhoea without fever in the third trimester has been associated with a higher risk of ADHD development. [17]

The emergence of ADHD symptoms—especially hyperactivity and impulsivity—may be associated with exposure to various harmful chemicals. Childhood exposure to lead is particularly concerning, as it can cause cognitive impairments, impulsive behaviour, and attention difficulties. Mercury, particularly in its methylmercury form, negatively affects neurodevelopment and may contribute to disorders such as ADHD. Organophosphate-based pesticides, known to impair optimal brain development, have also been linked to ADHD. Furthermore, Bisphenol A (BPA), an endocrine-disrupting chemical, may interfere with brain development, especially dopaminergic pathways. [18]

Traditionally, the neuroanatomical basis of ADHD has been associated with the functioning of the prefrontal cortex. More recently, attention has turned to several large-scale neural networks also implicated in the disorder. One of the most significant is the dopaminergic mesolimbic system, which plays a central role in motivated behaviour, outcome expectations, and reinforcement learning. Dysfunction in the noradrenaline neurotransmission system has also been identified as a major pathophysiological factor in ADHD. [3]

Brain imaging studies have shown that children with ADHD typically have about 4% less grey matter volume in both the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum compared to neurotypical children. However, the developmental pattern of the ADHD brain largely mirrors that of the non-ADHD brain, suggesting that the main differences are structural rather than developmental. [19]

In the ADHD brain, dysfunction is observed in four key functional areas that play a central role in the development of symptoms. One of these is the frontal cortex, responsible for higher-order brain functions such as attention, executive functioning, and organisational skills. Abnormal activity in this area directly contributes to the hallmark symptoms of ADHD. Another affected region is the limbic system, located deep within the brain, which regulates emotions and attention. Dysfunction here can lead to emotional instability and attentional difficulties. The basal ganglia are also impacted. These structures are crucial for communication and information processing within the brain. Dysfunction can cause a kind of “short-circuiting,” leading to inattention, impulsivity, and other behavioural challenges. Lastly, the reticular activating system (RAS), which is responsible for relaying sensory input and regulating arousal, may also function abnormally in ADHD. When impaired, the RAS can contribute to inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity by failing to properly regulate alertness and focus. Together, abnormalities in these areas explain much of the neurobiological basis for ADHD symptoms.

Neurotransmitter dysfunction

Noradrenaline plays a vital role in the functioning of the prefrontal cortex. Reduced levels in individuals with ADHD can impair their ability to hold information needed for planning and executing tasks, and may also weaken inhibitory control—the ability to suppress distractions or inappropriate behaviours. Dopamine is equally important, as it regulates emotion, motivation, and reward. In ADHD, dopamine levels may be lower, which can reduce motivation—especially for long-term goals or rewards that are not immediate. As a result, individuals with ADHD often prefer smaller, short-term rewards over larger, long-term ones. [20]

Neuroinflammation

Neuroinflammation refers to inflammation of nervous system tissues and is characterised by changes in microglial and astrocyte activity, increased cytokines and chemokines, and other molecular shifts in the central nervous system (CNS). Although the term is often reserved for inflammation caused by infections like bacteria or viruses, in this context, terms like microglial activation or neuronal immune activation are more accurate. In ADHD, both peripheral and central neuroinflammation can be observed. It is hypothesised that neuroinflammation disrupts brain development and raises the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders through multiple mechanisms. These include activation of glial cells, increased oxidative stress, abnormal neuronal development, reduced neurotrophic support, and impaired neurotransmitter function. Reduced neurotrophic support means the brain has fewer growth-promoting substances, known as neurotrophic factors, which are crucial for neuron survival, growth, and adaptability. A lack of these factors can impair neural development and reduce the brain’s ability to adapt and regenerate. [19]

The connection between the vagus nerve and ADHD is becoming increasingly evident. The vagus nerve is a critical communication pathway between the brain and various organs, helping regulate heart rate, breathing, digestion, inflammation, and the entire parasympathetic relaxation system. When this neurological “superhighway” is disrupted—due to early trauma, chronic stress, or nervous system dysfunction—children may display classic ADHD symptoms. Inattention, emotional reactivity, hyperactivity, digestive issues, and sleep disturbances are all linked to reduced vagal function and impaired neurological signalling. Children with ADHD often have low heart rate variability (HRV), an indicator of reduced vagus nerve activity and diminished parasympathetic tone. This maintains a state of heightened sympathetic arousal—or “fight or flight”—which plays a major role in the development of attention difficulties, hyperactivity, impulsivity, and emotion regulation challenges. When vagus nerve dysfunction and neurobehavioural imbalances are addressed through targeted assessments and protocols, many children can overcome the core challenges of ADHD without long-term reliance on medication. [21]

Gut microbes can activate the vagus nerve, playing a key role in influencing both brain function and behaviour. Remarkably, the Vagus nerve seems able to distinguish between non-pathogenic and potentially harmful bacteria—even in the absence of visible inflammation. Through vagal pathways, signals from the gut can either increase or reduce anxiety, depending on the nature of the stimuli. Some vagal signals trigger what’s known as the anti-inflammatory reflex, where sensory (afferent) signals travel from the gut to the brain and prompt a response that leads to the release of substances such as acetylcholine. Acetylcholine, in turn, interacts with immune cells to reduce inflammation. This immunomodulatory role of the Vagus nerve may also influence brain function and emotional regulation. [22]

The previously mentioned aetiological factors and catecholaminergic dysfunction may lead to a neurological condition primarily marked by oxidative stress and inflammation. These processes can further intensify the neurochemical changes underlying ADHD, affecting mood, behaviour, and concentration. Individuals with ADHD show increased markers of oxidative and nitrosative (NO) stress and reduced levels of antioxidants. Abnormalities in both the number and function of mitochondria—particularly in dopaminergic neurons—have also been observed. Mitochondrial dysfunction leads to the uncontrolled production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RONS), which are natural by-products of cellular energy (ATP) production. Excessive ROS/RONS levels can damage neurons by oxidising polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in cell membranes and by disrupting normal cellular processes, including programmed cell death. Furthermore, ROS/RONS activate microglial cells, prompting the release of inflammatory cytokines and triggering a self-perpetuating inflammatory cycle. [3] It is now well established that oxidative stress is elevated in individuals with ADHD and that some symptoms may improve with antioxidant treatment. [23]

The role of the gut microbiome

Gut-brain axis

Proper brain development and function are closely linked to the gut microbiome, leading to the concept of the Microbiome–Brain–Gut Axis. This theory describes the bidirectional communication between the gut and the brain. Disruptions in the gut microbiome are increasingly associated with the development of psychiatric, neurological, and neurodegenerative disorders. [13]

The gut microbiome influences brain development and the maturation of the immune and neuroendocrine systems, particularly during a critical early-life window. These effects cannot be reversed later in life. The microbiome begins to influence development even before birth, as the mother’s microbiome affects embryonic development. The relationship between the gut microbiome and the human body is reciprocal—factors such as diet, health status, and lifestyle also shape the microbial community in the digestive tract.

Modernisation, including changes in dietary habits and food processing, has significantly altered gut microbiome. Other factors—such as the rise in caesarean births, advances in medical treatments, and the increased use of medications for chronic conditions—also affect the natural composition of the gut microbiome. [3]

In individuals with ADHD, the gut microbiome differs from that of neurotypical individuals, although no definitive microbial profile has been identified. Research has shown that micronutrient supplementation may reduce levels of Bifidobacterium, which correlates with reduced ADHD symptoms. These bacteria are thought to influence the COMT enzyme, which plays a role in dopamine metabolism, thereby helping regulate dopamine and noradrenaline levels. In adolescents with ADHD, increased levels of Bacteroidaceae and Clostridiales and reduced levels of Faecalibacterium have been observed. 

These changes suggest that gut microbiome imbalances in ADHD involve multiple bacterial groups that may impact nervous system function and symptom expression. The microbiome may influence catecholaminergic neurotransmission by affecting the metabolic pathways or gene expression related to neurotransmitters such as dopamine and noradrenaline. Additionally, gut bacteria may contribute to neuroinflammation and oxidative stress by affecting microglial activation, blood-brain barrier permeability, and the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs).

SCFAs serve as “fuel” for mitochondria, but when mitochondrial function is already impaired and SCFA synthesis is elevated—due to microbial imbalance—this can lead to excessive production of ROS/RONS. Certain bacteria, such as Bacteroides and Clostridiae, are particularly active in SCFA production. SCFAs may also influence neurogenesis by affecting brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels. Abnormal BDNF levels have been observed in individuals with ADHD, potentially impacting neuroplasticity and contributing to issues with cognition, attention, and emotional regulation. Medication-based regulation of BDNF levels may help restore proper brain function. 

Another potential mechanism linking the gut microbiome to ADHD is its interaction with omega-3 fatty acid metabolism. Low omega-3 and high omega-6 levels can promote inflammation, oxidative stress, and neurotransmitter imbalance—all factors in ADHD symptom development. Omega-3 supplementation may be a promising adjunctive therapy by reducing inflammation and supporting brain health. DHA and EPA, the primary omega-3 fatty acids, are essential for maintaining cell membrane fluidity, neurotransmission, and receptor function. They also influence the levels of neurotrophic factors like BDNF and glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), which support the health and function of nerve cells—especially dopamine-producing neurons. Reduced DHA levels during brain development are associated with dopaminergic underfunction in the frontal cortex. [3]

Do you suffer from ADHD?

Examining the composition of the gut microbiome can help uncover the underlying root causes behind the symptoms.

Treatments

Drug therapy

Psychostimulants are among the primary medications used to treat moderate to severe cases of ADHD and may be prescribed to children from the age of five. These medications primarily work by increasing extracellular levels of dopamine (DA) and noradrenaline (NE), although they also influence other neurotransmitters such as serotonin (5-HT) and glutamate (Glu), which are involved in the pathophysiology of ADHD. However, the long-term use of psychostimulants is often complicated by issues related to treatment adherence and tolerability. These challenges may arise due to ADHD-related stigma, social resistance to medication, and side effects—particularly during adolescence. [3] Although short-term use of psychostimulants can significantly reduce core symptoms such as inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity in children and adolescents, their long-term effectiveness remains a topic of debate. Studies show statistically significant improvements in symptoms over several weeks compared to placebo, based on clinical rating scales. Still, it’s important to note that statistically significant changes in symptom scores do not always translate into meaningful improvements in everyday functioning. [24]

Macronutrients

Nutritional deficiencies may contribute to the development and severity of various mental health conditions, including depression, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, and ADHD. As a result, dietary interventions for ADHD are receiving growing scientific interest. [24]

Diet plays a particularly critical role in managing ADHD. However, meal planning and cooking at home—though beneficial for promoting healthy eating—can pose significant challenges for individuals with ADHD. These tasks require skills such as planning, time management, decision-making, and the ability to follow multi-step processes, which can easily lead to frustration. As a result, many prefer ordering takeout or dining out, even though restaurant meals often lack the essential nutrients needed for optimal brain function. One major advantage of cooking at home is knowing exactly what goes into the food. Using fresh, natural ingredients without artificial additives can help reduce symptoms. Maintaining a healthy diet can support both symptom management and the overall effectiveness of ADHD treatment. [25]

Foods that support brain function may be especially helpful. Protein-rich foods—such as cheese, eggs, meat, and nuts—especially when eaten in the morning or afternoon, can enhance concentration and extend the effectiveness of ADHD medication. Complex carbohydrates, which the body breaks down into glucose for energy, also support healthy brain function. Eating fruits and vegetables such as oranges, tangerines, pears, grapefruit, apples, or kiwi in the evening can aid sleep. Omega-3 fatty acids, found in tuna, salmon, cold-water fish, nuts, Brazil nuts, and olive oil, are also beneficial. Supplementation may be considered if dietary intake is insufficient. [26]

Children with ADHD often have significantly lower levels of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and significantly higher omega-6 levels. This has led to growing interest in omega-3 supplementation as an alternative or complement to psychostimulant therapy. Supplementation with DHA and EPA may help reduce overall symptoms, improve attention, and reduce hyperactivity in children and adolescents with ADHD. However, results from omega-3 supplementation studies remain inconsistent. [3]

A maternal diet high in omega-6 fatty acids during pregnancy may increase the risk of (subclinical) ADHD in children.

In conclusion, those with documented omega-3 deficiencies are most likely to benefit from supplementation. In other cases, the therapeutic effect on core ADHD symptoms appears to be limited. [24]

Micronutrients

Micronutrient deficiencies may contribute to dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex and other brain regions involved in the pathophysiology of ADHD. However, research findings on these associations are not yet fully conclusive. Children with ADHD often have lower serum magnesium levels compared to their neurotypical peers. This supports the hypothesis that magnesium deficiency may be linked to ADHD, although a direct causal relationship has not been established. Maintaining adequate magnesium levels may help reduce symptoms—particularly by promoting relaxation and better sleep, which are often challenging for both children and adults with ADHD. Supplementation with magnesium and vitamin D has been associated with significant improvements in behavioural and emotional issues, peer relationships, and overall coping in children. [24]

Children with ADHD also frequently have lower zinc levels. Zinc supplementation may help reduce hyperactivity and impulsivity, although it has not been shown to significantly improve inattention. However, excessive zinc intake can be harmful, so supplementation should only be started after consulting a doctor.

Iron deficiency may also play a role in ADHD symptoms. Even when not accompanied by anaemia, low ferritin levels (a marker of iron storage) may indicate problems with iron metabolism. Children with low ferritin levels have shown symptom improvement after 12 weeks of iron supplementation. [27] However, iron should only be supplemented under medical supervision and based on lab tests, as excessive iron can also be toxic.

Vitamin C plays a key role in regulating dopamine in the brain. Since ADHD stimulant medications work in part by increasing dopamine levels, vitamin C may indirectly support brain function. Ideally, vitamin C should be consumed through a balanced diet, but if dietary intake is insufficient, daily supplementation may be recommended. Importantly, vitamin C should not be taken within one hour before or after ADHD medication, as it can interfere with its absorption. [28]

Probiotics

Prebiotic and probiotic therapy should ideally begin after conducting a microbiome test, which helps determine the individual’s specific gut microbiome composition and allows for more targeted, effective treatment. Both prebiotics and probiotics have shown beneficial effects on psychiatric conditions, including ADHD. Probiotics are live strains of bacteria that benefit the host, while prebiotics are specific nutrients that support the growth of beneficial gut microbes. Synbiotics—combinations of prebiotics and probiotics—can further enhance treatment by improving the survival and colonisation of helpful bacteria in the intestines. Together, these supplements can help restore microbial balance, improving overall health and well-being. Probiotic supplementation with multiple bacterial strains has been shown to reduce symptoms of ADHD and anxiety (but not depression), and to decrease the severity of core ADHD symptoms. Such supplements may include various strains of Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Bacillus, and Streptococcus. The specific probiotic strain Bifidobacterium bifidum (Bf-688) has been associated with significant improvements in inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. [13]

One particularly beneficial strain is Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, which helps strengthen the intestinal barrier, making it less “leaky” or permeable. This is likely due to its ability to tighten the junctions between intestinal cells, increase protective mucus (mucin) production, and support the secretion of immunoglobulin A—an essential component of the immune system. Additionally, Lactobacillus rhamnosus has been linked to the regulation of emotional behaviour and the central GABAergic system via the gut-brain axis, with potential relevance to several neuropsychiatric disorders. [29]

Children and adolescents with ADHD who received Lactobacillus rhamnosus supplementation reported significantly improved health and quality of life, including better physical, social, academic, and emotional functioning after three months of treatment. These findings suggest that the use of Lactobacillus rhamnosus may be a beneficial therapeutic option. [24]

Diet

A higher-quality maternal diet during pregnancy has been associated with a modest reduction in ADHD symptom scores at age eight, as well as a lower risk of an ADHD diagnosis. [24]

Increased sugar consumption among children with ADHD may be more of a consequence than a cause of the disorder. These children tend to consume significantly more simple sugars, processed foods, and sugary drinks, while their intake of protein, vitamins B1 and B2, vitamin C, calcium, and zinc is notably lower than that of their neurotypical peers. Children with ADHD also tend to have a higher body mass index (BMI) and greater waist circumference. Analyses of dietary patterns have revealed that foods such as chocolate, crisps, and fruit jams are positively correlated with symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and overall ADHD diagnosis. Conversely, a vegetable-rich diet appears to be associated with a lower risk of ADHD symptoms.

A healthy dietary pattern—rich in vegetables, fruits, seafood, polyunsaturated fatty acids, magnesium, and zinc—has been linked to a significantly reduced risk of ADHD. In contrast, a Western dietary pattern, characterised by high consumption of sweets, processed meats, refined grains, fried potatoes, chips, soft drinks, animal fats, and hydrogenated fats, has been associated with a higher risk. Similar associations have been observed with fast food diets, which are primarily composed of biscuits, chocolate bars, pastries, pizza, sweets, snacks, and carbonated beverages. [24]

The Mediterranean diet—based on traditional eating patterns from Mediterranean countries—emphasises fresh vegetables, fruits, olive oil, fish, nuts, seeds, moderate dairy and wine intake, and minimal red meat and sugar. This diet has been shown to help prevent cardiovascular disease and improve overall health. A Mediterranean diet has also been linked to a lower risk of ADHD, suggesting that adherence to this eating pattern may have a protective effect in primary school-aged children. [24]

It has been hypothesised that some children with ADHD may experience hypersensitivity or allergic reactions to certain foods. In such cases, an oligoantigenic or low-food diet may be helpful in identifying food triggers. A strict elimination diet temporarily removes most foods from the child’s intake and then gradually reintroduces them one at a time to assess for behavioural or cognitive responses. Children who respond positively to the diet may show improved functioning within a few weeks. The final stage involves creating a personalised diet that excludes only the identified trigger foods. Certain foods may be more likely to contribute to ADHD symptoms, supporting the idea that food-related subtypes of ADHD may exist. [24] Certain foods are more likely to contribute to the appearance of ADHD symptoms, suggesting that food-related subtypes of ADHD may exist. [24]

Treatments of ADHD

Figure 3. Treatment options for ADHD

Contact our experts!

At HealWays, we offer comprehensive support for children with ADHD and behavioural disorders—especially when accompanied by gastrointestinal symptoms. Our goal is to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life through natural approaches that support both brain and digestive health. During a personal consultation, we recommend a tailored diet and nutritional supplement plan based on laboratory results and observed symptoms, to support the child’s development and overall well-being.

In general, our recommended approach includes the following elements:

  1. Gluten- and dairy-free diet: Avoiding gluten and dairy can be beneficial for many children with ADHD, particularly when food sensitivities or intolerances are present.
  2. Sugar avoidance: Eliminating added sugars and refined carbohydrates helps stabilise blood sugar and reduce mood and energy swings that can worsen ADHD symptoms.
  3. Digestive enzymes (Betaine-HCl + pepsin): These support nutrient absorption, especially in children with digestive issues or gut microbiome imbalances.
  4. Long-cooked bone broth, liver, offal
  5. Pomegranate: Rich in natural antioxidants and anti-inflammatory compounds, it may support both brain and digestive health.
  6. Omega-3 fatty acids (1000–2000 mg): EPA and DHA are essential for optimal brain function.
  7. Vitamin C: A potent antioxidant that supports immune function and dopamine synthesis—key in ADHD treatment.
  8. Vitamins A and D: Essential for immune health and brain function. Normalising levels in children with ADHD may lead to significant improvements.
  9. Concentrated red berry fruit purée: Rich in antioxidants and nutrients that support anti-inflammatory processes.
  10. Melatonin: May improve sleep quality, helping children fall asleep more easily and sleep more deeply—vital for managing behavioural challenges.
  11. Avoidance of food additives, preservatives, colourings; chemical-free nutrition

These integrated strategies can be highly effective in improving the quality of life for children with ADHD. In addition to the recommendations listed above, gut microbiome genetic testing is especially important. It allows us to precisely identify the bacterial composition in the gut and design personalised, targeted treatments that address both gastrointestinal and ADHD-related symptoms more effectively. Our comprehensive approach ensures that each child receives the personalised support best suited to their unique needs.

Do you suffer from ADHD?

Examining the composition of the gut microbiome can help uncover the underlying root causes behind the symptoms.

References

[1] P. Song, M. Zha, Q. Yang, Y. Zhang, X. Li, and I. Rudan, ‘The prevalence of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A global systematic review and meta-analysis’, J Glob Health, vol. 11, p. 04009, DOI: https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.11.04009

[2] ‘23.1.1.6. Sajátos nevelési igényű gyermekek, tanulók száma fogyatékosság-típus szerint’ https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/okt/hu/okt0006.html

[3] A. Checa-Ros, A. Jeréz-Calero, A. Molina-Carballo, C. Campoy, and A. Muñoz-Hoyos, ‘Current Evidence on the Role of the Gut Microbiome in ADHD Pathophysiology and Therapeutic Implications’, Nutrients, vol. 13, no. 1, Art. no. 1, Jan. 2021, DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010249

[4] ‘Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)’, Cleveland Clinic https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/4784-attention-deficithyperactivity-disorder-adhd

[5] ‘ADHD in Adults: Symptoms, Diagnosis & Treatment’, Cleveland Clinic https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/5197-attention-deficit-hyperactivity-disorder-adhd-in-adults

↓ Read More ↓
Published On: July 17th, 2025 / Categories: Uncategorized / Tags: /

Related Posts

Lyme disease – Symptoms, treatment, and key information

October 20th, 2025|0 Comments

Histamine intolerance – Symptoms, causes, treatment, and trigger foods

October 14th, 2025|0 Comments

A comparison of 16S rRNA and Shotgun techniques

August 15th, 2025|0 Comments